An urban settlement differs from a
rural one in a number of ways. Not only are the urban settlements bigger they
usually indicate a higher standard of living. The difference is also in the nature
of economic activities. In a rural settlement, most of the population is
engaged in agriculture or allied activities i.e. in primary sector while in an urban
centre most of the population is engaged in activities like manufacturing and
services i.e. in secondary and tertiary sector. Different countries have adopted
different criteria to distinguish between rural and urban centres. Census of
India, 2011 defines an urban unit as one having a Municipality, Municipal
Corporation or a Cantonment Board; or all other places having a population of
at least 5000, 75% of the main male workers being engaged in non agricultural
pursuits and a population density of at least 400 per sq. km.
Urbanization is the movement of people from rural to urban areas resulting in a
concentration of population in urban areas or cities. In economic terms, it is
also the movement of people from agriculture based communities to other
communities which are generally larger and taking up diverse economic
activities like Government related activities, trade, manufacturing and allied
activities. Urbanization is a multi dimensional process. The changes are not
only geographical but involve economic and social dimensions. This further
result in changes in the migrant’s believes attitudes and behaviour patterns.
Urbanization
in India
Urbanization in India has a fairly
long history dating back to the periods of Indus Valley Civilizaion. Urban
centres grew up in various periods of history including the medieval period.
During the British period urbanization was primarily for governmental requirements
and for facilitating trade outside India. However, these centres were limited
and most of the population resided in villages. As per 1901 census only 10.86%
of the population lived in cities. As per 1951 census, the figure was 17.29%
while in the year 2001, 27.81% of the population lived in urban areas. Census
of 2011 puts the percentage of urban population as 31.16%. These figures
indicate that the pace of urbanization has increased after independence. While
in first half of the last century, the increase in urban population was only 6.43%,
the corresponding figure for the second half of the century was about 10.52%. The
speed has been even faster in this century as an increase of 3.35% has been
registered in a single decade. In this decade, for the first time since
Independence, the absolute increase in population is more in urban areas that
in rural areas. The growth rate of population in rural areas as compared to
2001 census has decreased from 18.1% to 12.2% (a decrease of 5.9%) while in the
urban areas the growth rate of population has increased from 31.5% to 31.8% (an
increase of .3%). Although, some of this increase could be due to more
settlements being categorized as urban, nonetheless, these figures quite
clearly indicate the rapid pace of urbanization in India.
Causes
of urbanization
Urbanization involves movement of
people from rural to urban areas. This can be of two types. First type is due
to the ‘pull’ factor in which the people are attracted towards the city for a
better quality of life. Second type is the ‘push’ factor in which the people
move from villages to cities to avoid the poor quality of life in villages.
Though, migration from the village to cities is usually a combination of both
these types in varying proportions, the ‘push’ factor has been dominant in the Indian
context.
During the 20th century
and particularly in the decades after independence the country witnessed a
sharp increase in population. Population of India which was about 23.86 crores
in 1901 increased to about 36.11 crores in 1951; 84.64 crores in 1991; 102.87
crores in 2001 and 121.02 crores in 2011. Thus progressive growth rate over
1901 population was 51.47% in 1951; 255.05% in 1991; 331.52% in 2001 and
407.64% in 2011. As most of the population was and still is dependent upon
agriculture, this created pressure on land. The increase in population
decreased the size of average agricultural land holdings and a large number of
them were reduced to such a level that these could not support a family. This
forced the farmer to look for other employment opportunities. Indian rural
population has also a sizeable number of non-farmers. These included village
artisans, landless labourers and other workers who also started looking outside
for better employment opportunities. However, these opportunities were not
available in sufficient numbers in villages or nearby towns. In such a case,
the beleaguered rural population had no option but to migrate to some
industrial centre in search of employment.
Caste system is also one of the
reasons for this migration. Members of the lower caste, apart from being
economically deprived section in rural India are also socially harassed lot. People
from this community did not have any incentive to live in villages. Urban
centres gave them independence at least from the social degradation they
suffered in their villages. Hence, these people moved out to the urban centres
at the first available opportunity. This kind of migration due to ‘push’ factor
is driven by non availability of opportunities in rural areas, possibility of
getting a job in urban areas and possibilities of a better quality of life. As
cities offer more possibility of getting a job in comparison to the smaller
towns, such migrants avoid small towns and come straight to cities.
Some migration has also taken place due to the ‘pull’
factor. In earlier days, land was source of wealth and status. However, since
the beginning of the last century and particularly after independence, there
has been substantial growth in trade and industry. These activities are usually
carried out in urban areas. Consequently, many members of the landed gentry
shifted their economic activities to these more profitable areas and shifted to
cities. Some people also migrated due to availability of better infrastructure
in cities. These included those people who were well off in villages but wanted
a better quality of life and better education for their children.
Impact
of urbanization
Urbanization is usually seen as an
indicator of development as it indicates that more and more people are engaged
in secondary or tertiary economic activities. Unfortunately, urbanization in
India has been unsystematic and lopsided. Industrialization has not been evenly
spread throughout the country resulting in a few industrialized pockets.
Obviously these have large requirements of workers and hence attract sizeable
number of migrants from other unindustrialized areas. This coupled with the
push factor from the villages resulted in an exodus from the villages. As no
systematic effort was made to develop industries in smaller towns which could
provide employment to these people, this group landed in cities which were not
geared up to provide even basic facilities to these people. First requirement
of these migrants was accommodation and when the city could not meet their demands,
slums came up in cities, in which people lived in extremely pathetic
conditions.
As per draft mission document of National Urban
Livelihood Mission under the Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation,
population residing in urban slums has been estimated at about 93 million. As
per data provided by Census, 2011, 3% of the urban population does not have an
exclusive room for living, while 32% live in one room house. About 29.4% of the urban population does not
have access to tap water and 18.6% do not have latrine facility within the
house. 7.3% of urban population still does not have access to electricity. This
aspect of urbanization can hardly be accepted and brings with itself a host of
economic, social and environmental problems.
The migration which takes place due to ‘pull’ factor
mainly comprises of people who though well off in villages, visualize better
infrastructure and facilities in cities and move there for a better quality of
life. This kind of migration does not have any adverse impact on cities but
this drains the village of the skilled and educated population.
The impact of urbanization has also been social. Cities
comprise of population from different regions having different cultural
backgrounds. The migrants and the original inhabitants are mutually affected by
the culture and way of life of each other. People become more open, tolerant
and broad minded in their views resulting in the development of a cosmopolitan culture.
Though tensions sometimes do arise between various groups but tolerance and mutual
interdependence soon brings the life to normal.
Solutions
Development of infrastructure in
cities is one aspect of the solution. However, administration of the cities has
been entrusted to municipalities, which do not have the expertise or the resources
to deal with the rapidly changing scenario. There is hardly any stress on long
term planning. Their financial powers are also limited as the sources on which
they can levy tax are very limited. This will have to be looked into by the
Government because if the cities are to improve, their local governments will
have to rise to the occasion.
However, even if this is achieved, it will not be of much
use unless the conditions which ‘push’ people to migrate to cities continue to
exist. Therefore apart from developing infrastructure in cities it is also
important that alternative employment is generated in the villages itself. This
could be done by developing agriculture based small scale industries. Further, industries
making use of local resources and expertise should be developed in small towns.
This would help these towns to absorb those people who could not gain
employment in villages. This would ensure a more even development as well as a
better quality of life in both rural and urban areas.
