Socio-Religious Awakening in the 19th century (Part-II)

Important reformers of the 19^th century

            As discussed in the previous article on the subject, India underwent a socio-religious awakening in the 19^th century. These reform movements took place all over the country. Some facts about the important reformers/reform movements of the period are as under:

Raja Ram Mohun Roy and Brahmo Samaj

Raja Rammohan Roy was the first person who took up the issue of social reforms in the Indian society in the 19^th century. He has been called the “Father of Modern India” and “Father of Indian Renaissance”. Raja Rammohan Roy was born in 1772 in Bengal. He was a multilingual scholar with knowledge of Bengali, Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit and English. Though proud of India’s cultural heritage he was opposed to various evil practices associated with the religion. He strongly opposed sati, enforced widowhood, child marriage and caste system. During course of his campaign he published a number of pamphlets, books and magazines. In 1818 and 1819 he published his famous pamphlets on sati. In 1821 he started a newspaper ‘Sambad Kaumudi’ in which he published a number of articles on various social issues.

Rammohan Roy was a strong believer in monotheism and an omnipresent God who is one and undivided. He established Atmiya Sabha in 1815 to facilitate discourses on these issues. Brahma Samaj was founded in 1828 which preached the worship of one God. In 1830 he was sent by the Mughal Emperor to England to petition for an increase in his allowances where after persistent lobbying he was able to persuade the British Government to increase the stipend of Mughal Emperor by 30,000 pounds a year. However, he fell ill and was buried in Bristol on 27^th September 1833.

Contribution of Rammohan Roy in the development of a modern Indian is immense. In the words of Tagore, ‘he inaugurated the modern age in India”. His most important campaign was against sati practice and his persistent efforts were one of the reasons for the sati practice being banned by Lord William Bentick by enacting Bengal Sati Regulation Act of 1829.

Devendra Nath Tagore and Keshub Chandra Sen were two other important leaders of Brahmo Samaj. Debendra Nath Tagore (l817-1905), established the Tatvaranjini Sabha in 1839 which was later known Tattvabodhini Sabha. It also had a printing press and started publishing Tatvabodhini Patrika. The Sabha was later on merged with Bahma Samaj and Debendranath Tagore managed Brahmo Samaj. Keshub Chandra Sen (l838-1884) was another important reformer associated with Brahmo Samaj. However, differences developed between Tagore and Sen as a result of which Sen formed the Brahmo Samaj of India in 1866.  

Henry Louis Vivian Derozio and the “Derozions”, “Young Bengal”

            Henry Lui Vivian Derozio (1809-1831) was a poet and a teacher at Hindu College, Calcutta. He was appointed a teacher in the college in 1826 at the young age of 17 and his radical ideas had profound impact upon his students. He organized an association for debate and discussions on literature, philosophy, history and science. He inspired his followers and students to test everything on the basis of reason and logic and not to shy from questioning any authority.  His followers were known as the “Derozians” and Young Bengal. Derozio himself died of cholera at the young age of 22 but his ideas continued to inspire young people. The “Young Bengal” Movement continued even after Derozio’s death and members of this group continued preaching radical views through teaching, journalism and personal non-conformist behaviour.

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

            Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-1891 A.D.) was another important reformer from Bengal. He dedicated himself to the cause of the emancipation of women particularly in the field of women education and widow remarriage. His efforts led to Hindu Widow Remarriage Act in 1856. He played a leading role in promoting education of girls and started and helped in setting up a number of schools for girls. Vidyasagar did not concern himself much with religious questions and stressed more on social work.

Swami Vivekananda and “Ramakrishna Mission”

Ramakrishna Paramhans (1836-1886) was a priest at Dakshineshwar Kali temple. Though he did not have much formal education, he had a deep understanding of religion. He believed in oneness of God and did not differentiate between various religions. One of his disciples was Narendra Nath Datta (l863-1902) later known as Swami Vivekananda. Vivekananda laid stress on Ramakrishna’s teaching on the essential oneness of all religions. He laid stress on Vedantic philosophy of upnishads which he considered to be the most rational system. This he clearly mentioned in the World Congress at Chicago in 1893. However, despite his belief in superiority of Hinduism, he also believed in diversity of religions and the need for tolerance. He also stressed on social service and upliftment of the masses. He founded the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897 for spreading the teachings of his master and for conducting social service. This organization has played an important role in providing social service and has also helped people in times of national distress like famine, floods, and epidemic. The mission is running a number of schools, hospitals and other programmes of social welfare.

Paramhans Sabha & Prarthna Samaj

            In western India, Dadoba Pandurang founded Manav Dharm Sabha in 1844. Later he founded Paramhans Sabha in 1849. Its followers had faith in one God and opposed caste system. At its meetings, members took food cooked by low-caste people. They favoured education of women and supported widow remarriage. Prarthana Samaj was founded by Dr.Atmaram Pandurang in 1867. R.G.Bhandarkar (1837-1925) and M.G.Ranade (1842-1901) were important reformers associated with it. Samaj took to work of social reforms. It opposed caste system, opposed child marriage, supported widow remarriage and the education of women. M.G. Ranade was also the founder of the Widow Remarriage Association and the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha. The latter was socio-political in nature and was formed in 1870 with a view to bring the aspirations of the people to the notice of the Government.   

Jyotiba Phule and Satyashodhak Samaj

 Jyotirao Govindrao Phule was born in 1827 in Poona in a family of mali caste (gardeners). His family had been supplying flowers to the court of Peshwas. He got his education in a school run by Scottish missionaries. His missionary education failed to convert him to Christianity but helped him to develop a critique of orthodox Hinduism. He was one of the most important reformers of the country and incessantly worked for the upliftment of lower castes and women. He started girl’s school in Poona in 1848 as well as a school for children of the depressed classes. In 1873, he founded the Satya-Shodhak  Samaj. He also wrote extensively. Gulamgiri (1873), Shetkaryacha Asud (The Cultivator’s Whipcord) (1883) and Sarvajanik Satya Dharm Pustak (1891) are some of his important works. He also submitted a memorandum to the Hunter Education Commission (1882).

Gopal Hari Deshmukh (Lokhitwadi)

            Gopal Hari Deshmukh (Lokahitwadi) was another reformer who attacked orthodox Hinduism. He criticized all the ills plaguing hindu society. From 1848 he started his famous series of essays called ‘shatpatre’ or hundred letters (actual number was 108). These present a sharp and penetrating analysis of the ills of Indian society.  

Swami Dayanand and “Arya Samaj”

            Swami Dayanand was a vedic scholar of the period. He believed in the superiority of Hinduism and infalliability of the Vedas and also that a number of belief and superstitions in the Hindu religion were later additions which need to be discarded. Hence he have the call “Back to the Vedas”. He opposed idolatry and caste system and tried to redefine varna system on the basis of virtue. On the social front he opposed child marriage and encouraged remarriage of widows. He founded the Arya Samaj in 1875 which soon made rapid progress in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat. Arya Samaj also supported modern education and a chain of Dayanand Anglo Vedic Schools and Colleges was established to impart modern education.  Arya Samaj also tried to inculcate a spirit of self respect among the Hindus. It also prescribed a purificatory ceremony called “shuddhi” for those Hindus who had been converted to other religions like Islam and Christianity. As compared to Brahmo Samaj, the Arya Samaj had more revivalist tendencies though its revivalism was not only religious but national as well.

Reform movements in South India

            In the southern parts of the country Kandukuri Veeresalingam (1848-1919) pioneered the movement in support of widow remarriage and girls education in Andhra. He was influenced by Brahmo Samaj and established a number of schools for girls as well as a widow home. He was also a prolific writer and wrote extensively in Telugu. Veda Samaj was founded in Madras in 1864 and advocated discarding of caste distinctions and promotion of widow remarriage and women’s education. It condemned the superstitions and rituals of orthodox Hinduism and propagated belief in one supreme God. Chembeti Sridharalu Naidu was the most popular leader of the Veda Samaj.

Reform Movements among Muslims

  Reforms also took place among Muslims. Muhammedan Literary Society was founded in Calcutta in 1863 by Nawab Abdul Latif (1828-1893). It promoted discussion of religious, social and political questions in the light of modern ideas and encouraged upper and middle class Muslims to adopt Western education. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad had founded the Ahmediya Movement in 1889. The followers of this movement believed in revival of Islam and its peaceful propagation. However, the movement faced discrimination from fellow Muslims on account of certain beliefs.

Syed Ahmad Khan was the most important Muslim reformer. Born in 1817 in a Muslim elite family in Delhi, he took up a job with the East India Company. During the revolt of 1857 he supported his masters but he was deeply affected by the revolt and was concerned about the impact of revolt on the Muslim community. He realized that unless Muslims adapted themselves to the changed circumstances of the British rule and adapted modern education, they would be deprived of the new opportunities. In 1864 he started a Scientific Society in Aligarh which promoted discussions on history, science and political economy. In 1869, he travelled to England where he was impressed by the British Colleges. As a result of his efforts Muhammedan Anglo-Oriental College was started in 1875 which later grew into Aligarh Muslim University.

Reforms among Parsis

            Parsi community was also affected by the wave of socio-religious reforms. The Rehnumai Mazdayasan Sabha or Religious Reform Association was founded in 1851by Nauroji Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji and others. Dadabhai Naroji also started a journal Rast Goftar (Herald of Truth) in 1851 and was also its first editor. This journal became an important tool of social reform among the Parsi community in India. The Rehnumai Mazdayasan Sabha campaigned against the entrenched orthodoxy in the religious field and initiated the modernization of Parsi social customs regarding the education of girls marriage and the social position of women in general. In course of time, the Parsis became socially the most westernized section of Indian society.

Socio-religious awakening in the 19th century (Part-I)

          In the 19^th century Indian society was plagued by various social problems. Religious superstitions were prevalent and the priests exercised excessive and unhealthy influence on the people. Women were subject to control and hardly had any rights. Practices like sati, child infanticide, child marriage and ban on remarriage of widows compounded their problems. Persons from the lower castes were another harassed lot facing untouchability and discrimination in all spheres of life. It was in these social conditions that the colonial rule introduced modern education and western culture to Indian people. Advent of an alien culture necessitated an introspection of Indian social conditions as well as a comparison of Indian and Western societies and cultures. This was facilitated by the emergence of an educated middle class which was different from the traditional landed aristocracy and comprised of merchants, traders, industrialists and professional groups like teachers, lawyers, journalists and doctors. This class had received modern education and in its mindset was progressive and not so much bound to tradition.

           Thus, various socio-religious reform movements which came up in the nineteenth century were the immediate response of the section of Indian society to western ideas and culture. Intellectuals of the period did carry out an introspection of Indian society. While comparing the Indian society with the West they perceived many of the beliefs to be decadent and regressive and wanted the Indian society to be cleansed of such beliefs and practices. This started the demand for reforms. As religion held the most important place in Indian society, the reforms were also concentrated on religion but the approach of the reformers was not entirely religious. The approach was rather humanist and objective was to improve the condition of the people. The reformers worked for improving the condition of women by raising their voices for abolition of sati practice, allowing widow remarriage and stopping female infanticide. Caste discrimination was another aspect of the society which attracted attention of the reformers particularly those coming from these castes.  Finally, all the social reformers laid great stress on spread of education.

          Rationalism and Universalism were two important ideas on which these reformers based their thinking.  The reformers tried to develop a rational view of all socio-religious issues. At certain times some reformers did refer to scriptures for seeking religious sanctions. Raja Ram Mohan Roy went to scriptures for demonstrating that sati had no religious sanction and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar invoked religious sanction for widow remarriage. However, in all such cases rationality was not compromised and religion was only invoked when it served the humanist purpose.  Some others like ‘Derozoins’ and ‘Young Bengal’ held a particularly highly rational attitude towards various issues. They rejected all authority and held the position that all things should be rationally analyzed. Akshay Kumar Dutt developed a rationalist critique of Indian philosophies and his influence resulted in Brahmo Samaj accepting the view that the Vedas are not infallible. Reformers from Maharashtra were less dependent on religion and Gopal Hari Deshmukh (Lokhitwadi) did not consider religious sanction necessary for social reforms. He held that if religion did not sanction reforms then religion has to be changed.

          Universalism was another aspect of the reform movements. Although reformers worked to bring social reforms in their particular sects or groups, their religious perspective was universalistic.  Brahmo Samaj founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy was intended to be a Universalist creed. Ram Mohan Roy was a strong believer in monotheism. Keshab Chandra Sen was clearer when he said, “Our position is not that truths are to be found in all religions, but all established religions of the world are true.” Shree Narayan Guru, the reformer from Kerala who did most of his work among the backward classes of Kerala said, “One Caste, One religion and One God for all”.

Methods of Reform

          These movements adopted various methods for bringing changes in the society. First was the creation of awareness among people by publishing articles, journals and books as well as organizing debates and discussions on various issues.  Raja Ram Mohan Roy was a pioneer in this field. In 1818 and 1819 he published his famous pamphlets on sati which received widespread public attention. Originally written in Bengali, these were later translated into English under the title, “A Conference Between An Advocate For and An Opponent of, The Practice Of Burning Widows Alive” and “A Second Conference Between An Advocate For and An Opponent Of, the Practice of Burning Widows Alive”. “Sambad Kaumudi” was one of his notable journal.  Similarly, Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar also published pamphlets on widow remarriage which had profound impact on the Indian society.

           Second method was by seeking legislative intervention against prevalent social evils. Reformers like Keshab Chandra Sen in Bengal, Mahadev Govind Ranade in Maharashtra and Veersalingam in Andhra Pradesh believed that social reforms could be taken up only with the support of the state. These reformers appealed to the colonial rulers for enacting suitable legislations. Although they were successful in some cases and legislation banning sati and allowing widow remarriage were passed, these reformers failed to understand that primary intention of the British in India was not to reform or enlighten Indian society but to govern it for their own benefit and hence their support was likely to come only when it suited their own interests.

            Third method was that of representing themselves as symbols of change through non-conformist individual activity and an uncompromising attitude towards social evils. However, this group was limited only to ‘Derozions’ or ‘Young Bengal’. They were highly influenced by the West and stood for rejection of all tradition. One of them, Ram Gopal Ghose, while taking about rationality said, “He who will not reason is a bigot, he who cannot is a fool and he who does not is a slave.” However, their uncompromising attitude failed to impress people.   Last method adopted by some of the reformers was through social service.  Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was one such reformist who did not feel contended by writing pamphlets and creating awareness. He devoted his entire life for the cause of widow remarriage. Arya Samaj and Ramakrishna Mission also tried to propagate ideas of social reform through social service.

Significance

           These reformers made significant contribution in evolution of modern India. These were the people who took the first step towards the formation of a modern society. They championed the cause of equality, criticized the social divisions of castes, tried to improve the conditions of women, worked against superstitions and also worked for the development of a modern and rational outlook. Efforts from these people resulted in the colonial Government bringing in a number of legislations which helped social reforms. In case of women, these movements led to passing of Bengal Sati Regulation Act of 1829, Hindu Widows Remarriage Act of 1856 and increasing the age of marriage of girls from 10 to 12 years in the year 1891. Later, Child Marriage Restraint Act was passed in 1929 in which the marriageable age was increased to 14 and by an amendment in 1940 to 15 years.  Another important subject of reforms was the caste system. All the reformers condemned caste system but biggest difference was made reformers coming from these communities like Jyotiba Phule in Maharashtra and Shree Narayan Guru in Kerala.  These movements made the lower classes conscious of their rights as human beings and citizens.  Reforms during the period are also important in the sense that these provided a platform on which the country could move forward for developing an egalitarian society in later years.

Limitations

           

           Despite significant contribution to the Indian society, these reformers suffered from some limitations. First and foremost was that the reformers failed to realise the true nature of colonial rule. They felt that colonial rule was beneficial for the country and new ideas from the West would regenerate Indian society. They failed to realise that British rule was essentially exploitative in nature and the colonial rule would support that social structure which it would consider beneficial for itself. Second limitation was that most of the reforms were essentially an educated urban middle class phenomenon.  Except movements of Jyotiba Phule and Shree Narayan Guru and to a certain extent Arya Samaj, the reform movements were limited to the upper class of the society. This restricted the effectiveness of these movements.