Revolt
of 1857 is a very important event in the Indian history and in our freedom
struggle. It has been termed as Sepoy Mutiny by the British however the
incidents make it clear that although the mutiny was started by the sepoys it
soon engulfed large sections of civilian population turning it into a full
scale rebellion. Causes of the rebellion lay in the colonial administration
which had impoverished peasants and artisans.
(Impact of colonialism on Indian economy). There were social and political causes
as well leading to widespread resentment against the colonial rule. In fact
resentment against the colonial rulers had started building up since their
advent and had earlier expressed itself in a number of uprisings that took
place during 1757-1856. (Freedom Struggle:Uprisings between 1757 to 1856 ).
However these earlier uprisings were local incidents. The revolt of 1857 was
the first large scale effort by the Indians to get rid of the colonial rule.
Some of the reasons which led to this revolt are as under:
- Exploitation of peasantry-The revenue settlements made by the colonial administration had impoverished peasantry. The Permanent Settlement which was in force in Bengal and in most of North India did not recognise the rights of peasants on land. Instead the property rights were transferred to loyal zamindars and money lenders who raised the revenue exhorbitantly and extracted it coercively. In Rohilkhand alone there were as many as 2,37,388 coercive collections during 1848-56. Other revenue settlements were no better. Apart from land revenue peasant was also oppressed by petty officials. Litigation was complex, time consuming and expensive. The nexus between the law courts, lower officials and money lenders made the condition of the peasantry miserable.
- Problems of Artisans-As a result of British policy Indian handicrafts were completely destroyed. As a result artisans were forced to look for alternative employment which did not exist. Many of them joined the already impoverished peasantry but this did not improve the condition much.
- Landed gentry-Earlier zamindars and landed gentry lost their lands and position to the new zamindars and moneylenders. In Oudh alone there were about 21,000 taluqdars whose estates were confiscated. This section thus had a grudge against the colonial rule and seized the opportunity posed by sepoy rebellion. As regards the new zamindaars their positions was also not secure and was subject to their timely payment of land revenue. Out of the total amount of revenue settlement 10/11 was to be paid to the company. Any default in this could lead to selling off their estates to others.
- Doctrine of Lapse and deposed rulers-Relationship between the company and the Indian states was not of equality but that of subsidiary alliance. Indian rulers were subordinate to the East India Company. Succession to the throne was also subject to the confirmation by the British rulers. Doctrine of Lapse enforced by Lord Dalhousie meant that the rulers who did not have a natural heir could not adopt one and their states would be annexed to the British territories. Many states including Satara, Nagpur, Jhansi and many others were annexed on basis of this doctrine. Awadh was annexed on the grounds of alleged maladministration. Even the rights of Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah were curtailed and it was decided that after him no one would be given the title of Mughal emperor. This policy towards the rulers caused resentment not only among the rulers but also among the common people.
- Reforming zeal of colonial rulers-Sepoys as well as the civilian population felt that the British rule posed a threat to the religion. A number of legislations like the Sati Abolition Act and Widow Remarriage Act though progressive in social terms were not taken in that spirit by the orthodox sections of Indian society. In 1850 Act XXI was passed which enabled Christian converts to retain ancestral property. This was interpreted as a concession to these coverts. Such legislations along with activities of Christian missionaries led the orthodox people to believe that the religion was under threat.
- Problems of Sepoys-The sepoys in the army faced a number of problems. Their pay was abysmally low. A soldier in the infantry received seven rupees a month and a horseman in cavalry received twenty seven rupees a month out of which he had to pay for his uniform, his food and upkeep of his horse. This hardly left him anything. Discrimination was rule rather than exception. All the higher posts were occupied by the British and Indians were made to feel subordinate at each step. Another aspect was that the soldier was basically a farmer in uniform and his family was facing the difficulties as being faced by other farmers. There were about 75,000 soldiers from Awadh alone and its annexation hurt their feelings badly. Most of the sepoys were from upper castes of North India were very conscious about their religion and caste status. Like civilian population they also had apprehensions that the British would destroy their religion.
- Immediate cause-As mentioned above sepoys like other sections of population had suspicions that British would try to harm their religion. This was increased by the rumour that the new Enfield Paper cartridges which were to be bitten before use were greased with beef and pig fat. Army authorities did not take any action to allay these fears or to properly communicate these troops. As a result the rumour grew strong and refusal of sepoys to use these cartridges became the immediate cause for revolt.
- Planned Revolt-There is good deal of controversy on this point. One view says that the revolt was spontaneous while the others that this was a conspiracy. The rebel leaders formed a clandestine group and hence no record about their activities is available. However, there are stories about red lotuses and chapaatis being sent from village to village and from regiment to regiment as symbols of freedom. However nothing can be said with certainty in this regard.
